American Indian

Northern AmericaEarly cultural development

The earliest ancestors of Native Americans are known as Paleo-Indians. They shared certain cultural traits with their Asian contemporaries, such as the use of fire and domesticated dogs; they do not seem to have used other Old World technologies such as grazing animals, domesticated plants, and the wheel.

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Archaeological evidence indicates that Paleo-Indians traveling in the interior of Northern America hunted Pleistocene fauna such as woolly mammoths (Mammuthus species), giant ground sloths (Megatherium species), and a very large species of bison (Bison antiquus); those traveling down the coast subsisted on fish, shellfish, and other maritime products. Plant foods undoubtedly contributed to the Paleo-Indian diet, although the periglacial environment would have narrowed their quantities and varieties to some extent. Plant remains deteriorate quickly in the archaeological record, which can make direct evidence of their use somewhat scarce. However, food remains at Paleo-Indian sites including Gault (Texas) and Jake Bluff (Oklahoma) indicate that these people used a wide variety of plants and animals.

Clovis points

Although the artifacts recovered from many Paleo-Indian sites are predominantly, or even solely, stone tools, it is likely that these groups also made a wide variety of goods from perishable materials that have since disintegrated; certainly, stone tools alone would have proved inadequate to the challenges these peoples encountered. One of the most distinctive Paleo-Indian artifact types is the Clovis point, the first of which was discovered on a kill site near what is now Clovis, New Mexico. Clovis points are lance-shaped, partially fluted, and used for killing mammoths and other very large game (see Clovis complex).

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Beginning some 11,500 years ago, the climate in the Northern Hemisphere slowly became warmer and drier. Temperatures rose significantly over the next several thousand years, eventually averaging a few degrees higher than those experienced in the same areas during the early 21st century. Cold-adapted plant species such as birch and spruce retreated to the mountains and the far north, replaced in lower altitudes and latitudes by heat- and drought-resistant species including grasses, forbs, and hardwood trees. Very large animals such as mammoths and giant ground sloths were unable to cope with the change and became extinct; other species, such as bison, survived by becoming smaller.

Archaic peoplesDesert Archaic culture split-twig figurines

As the environment changed, so did indigenous economic strategies. The most visible change was a further diversification in subsistence. As megafauna became scarce and cold-weather flora retreated north, groups began to prey upon smaller animals such as deer and elk, to catch fish and collect shellfish from inland rivers and lakes, and to use a wider array of plant foods, including seeds, berries, nuts, and tubers. People became somewhat more settled, tending to live in larger groups for at least part of the year; they often built seasonal residences along waterways. They also developed systems of trade between different geographical areas. These changes in diet and settlement and the development of trade are some of the defining characteristics of the Archaic cultures.

Archaic technology included grinding tools (mortars and pestles), woodworking tools (grooved stone axes and gouges), and items such as plummets whose use is not clear. Archaic hunting tools are distinguished by the introduction of the spear-thrower, which enables a hunter to throw a dart accurately and with great force at a distant target; so-called bird stones may have augmented the hunter’s throwing power. Large fluted points became less popular, replaced by smaller side-notched points more appropriate for dart-based hunting.

In adopting a broad array of social, economic, and technological innovations, Archaic peoples enjoyed a long period of relative stability. Although the duration of the Archaic Period varied greatly depending upon location, it persisted from as early as 8000 bce until at least 2000 bce in most of Northern America. In areas that were either unusually prosperous or, conversely, unsuitable for agriculture—the rich microclimates of California and the salmon-rich Plateau and Pacific Northwest in the former case and the cool interior of northern Canada in the latter—foraging societies persisted well into the 19th century ce. (See also agriculture, origins of.)